奥森春季半马开跑在即 倡导跑者传递健康跑
| Perang Greece-Turki 1919–1922 | |||||||||
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| Sebahagian daripada Perang Kemerdekaan Turki | |||||||||
 Arah jam daripada atas-kiri: Mustafa Kemal pada penghujung Pertempuran ?n?nü Pertama; tentera Greece berundur semasa tahap terakhir; serangan Greece dalam Pertempuran Gediz di sungai Gediz; infantri Turki dalam parit. | |||||||||
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| Pihak yang terlibat | |||||||||
| Disokong oleh: |
Disokong oleh: Sukarelawan Pontic[19][20][21][22] | ||||||||
| Komandan dan pemimpin | |||||||||
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| Unit terlibat | |||||||||
 Tentera Darat Nationalis (bermula 1920) Pasukan Kebangsaan (sehingga 1920) Green Army (sehingga 1920) |
 Tentera Asia Kecil Tentera Khilafah[14] legion sukarelawan Armenia[26] Green Army (bermula 1920) | ||||||||
| Kekuatan | |||||||||
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Pertubuhan 1922[30]
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Pertubuhan 1922[30] | ||||||||
| Kerugian dan korban | |||||||||
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264,000 orang awam Greece mati
[43]Jumlah orang awam Turki mati diragui. 30,000+ bangunan dan 250+ kampung musnah atau dibakar oleh Tentera Darat Greece. | |||||||||
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* 20,826 tahanan Greece ditawan. Sekitar 740 pegawai dan 13,000 askar tiba di Greece semasa pertukaran tawanan pada tahun 1923. Kira-kira 7,000 orang dianggap mati semasa dalam tahanan Turki.[42]
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Perang Greece-Turki 1919–1922[e] terjadi antara Greece dan Pergerakan Kebangsaan Turki semasa pembahagian Empayar Uthmaniyyah selepas tamatnya Perang Dunia I, antara 15 Mei 1919 hingga 14 Oktober 1922. KOnflik ini merupakan sebahagian daripada Perang Kemerdekaan Turki.
Rujukan
[sunting | sunting sumber]Nota
[sunting | sunting sumber]- ^ For further information, see United States during the Turkish War of Independence.
- ^ The French supported the Greeks until November 1920 and a small period between the Battle of Kütahya–Eski?ehir and the Battle of the Sakarya. After these two times, France did not support the Greeks anymore.[18]
- ^ The Turks fought only with irregular units (Kuva-yi Milliye, i.e. the National Forces) in the years 1919 and 1920. The Turks established their regular army (Kuva-yi Nizamiye), i.e. the Nationalist Army under the Ankara Government, towards the end of 1920. The First Battle of ?n?nü was the first battle where regular army units fought against the Greek army.
- ^ One Greek division had at least 25% more men than a Turkish division. In 1922, Turkish divisions had 7,000–8,000 men averagely, whereas Greek divisions had well over 10,000 men per division.
- ^ It is known as the Western Front (Turki: Bat? Cephesi, Turki Uthmaniyah: ??? ???? ??, rumi: Garb Cebhesi) in Turkey, and the Asia Minor Campaign (Yunani: Μικρασιατικ? Εκστρατε?α, rumi: Mikrasiatikí Ekstrateía) or the Asia Minor Catastrophe (Yunani: Μικρασιατικ? Καταστροφ?, rumi: Mikrasiatikí Katastrofí) in Greece. It is also referred to as the Greek invasion of Anatolia.[45]
Petikan
[sunting | sunting sumber]- ^ Jelavich, Barbara (1983). History of the Balkans: Twentieth century. Cambridge University Press. m/s. 131. ISBN 978-0-521-27459-3.
- ^ "УКРА?НСЬКА ДЕРЖАВН?СТЬ У XX СТОЛ?ТТ?". litopys.org.ua.
- ^ Внешняя политика Азербайджана в годы cоветской власти
- ^ "Hüseyin Ad?güzel – Atatürk, Nerimanov ve Kurtulu? Sava??m?z". 24 Disember 2014. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 24 Disember 2014.
- ^ Andican, A. Ahat (2007). Turkestan Struggle Abroad From Jadidism to Independence. SOTA Publications. m/s. 78–81. ISBN 978-908-0-740-365.
- ^ The Place of the Turkish Independence War in the American Press (1918–1923) by Bülent Bilmez: "...the occupation of western Turkey by the Greek armies under the control of the Allied Powers, the discord among them was evident and publicly known. As the Italians were against this occupation from the beginning, and started "secretly" helping the Kemalists, this conflict among the Allied Powers, and the Italian support for the Kemalists were reported regularly by the American press.
- ^ Sforza, Diario, November 28, 1920, 61
- ^ David Lloyd George, The Truth about the Peace Treaties, v. 2 (Gollancz, London: 1938), pp. 1348–1349
- ^ Michael Smith, Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919-1922, University of Michigan Press, 1999.
- ^ Ζολ?τα, Αναστασ?ου Π. (1995). Η Εθνικ? Τραγωδ?α (National Tragedy). Αθ?να, Πανεπιστ?μιο Αθην?ν, Τμ?μα Πολιτικ?ν (University of Athens) Επιστημ?ν και Δημοσ?α? Διοικ?σεω?. σελ?δε? pp. 44–58
- ^ ?ΤΑ ΦΟΒΕΡΑ ΝΤΟΚΟΥΜΕΝΤΑ – ΣΑΓΓΑΡΙΟΣ ΕΠΟΠΟΙ?Α ΚΑΙ ΚΑΤΑΡΕΥΣΗ ΣΤΗΝ ΜΙΚΡΑ ΑΣΙΑ?, ΔΗΜ. ΦΩΤΙΑΔΗΣ, ΕΚΔ. ΦΥΤΡΑΚΗ, ΑΘΗΝΑ, 1974
- ^ Briton Cooper Busch: Mudros to Lausanne: Britain's Frontier in West Asia, 1918–1923, SUNY Press, 1976, ISBN 0-87395-265-0, sayfa 216 Diarkibkan 2025-08-07 di Wayback Machine.
- ^ "British Indian troops attacked by Turks; thirty wounded and British officer captured – Warships' guns drive enemy back
- ^ a b The Kuva-yi Inzibatiye legion, also known as the Caliphate Army, was established by the imperial government of the Ottoman Empire, supported the Greek Army during the war fighting with 4,000–7,000 soldiers, under the command of Süleyman ?efik Pasha, against the Turkish Army and the Turkish National Movement. See: Meydan, Sinan (2010). Cumhuriyet tarihi yalanlar?. Yenibosna, ?stanbul: ?nk?lap. m/s. 217, 342–344. ISBN 978-9751030542. OCLC 775482636. and Jowett, Philip (2015). Armies of the Greek-Turkish War 1919–22. Bloomsbury Publishing. m/s. 45. ISBN 978-1472806864. OCLC 894307254.
- ^ New York Times, Smyrna is taken away from Turkey, 17 May 1919
- ^ Cevizo?lu, Hulki (2007). 1919'un ?ifresi (Gizli ABD ??galinin Belge ve Foto?raflar?). Ceviz Kabu?u Yay?nlar?. m/s. 66, 77. ISBN 9789756613238.
- ^ Yal??n, Soner (19 Mac 2014). "ABD "Türkiye'nin payla??lmas?"nda nas?l rol alm??t??". Odatv. Dicapai pada 18 Jun 2024.
- ^ Turgut ?zakman, ?u ??lg?n Türkler (115th edition, September 2005), p. 23: Sevr Antla?mas?'n? ve tabii ü?lü Anla?ma'y? milliyet?ilere silah zoruyla kabul ettirmek g?revi, ?ngilizlerin arac?l???yla Yunan ordusuna ?nerilir, o da kabul eder. Yunan hükümeti, bu hizmetine kar??l?k, ?zmir ve Do?u Trakya'dan ba?ka, ?stanbul'un da Yunanistan'a verilece?i ümidine kap?l?r.
Fakat beklenilmeyen bir olay Yunanistan'? kar??t?racakt?r. Kral Aleksandros ?lür. Venizelos, Konstantin'in tahta geri d?nmesini engellemek i?in se?imleri yenilemeye karar verir ve se?ime "ya Konstantin, ya ben!" slogan?yla girer. Halk Konstantin'i ve onu destekleyen partiyi se?er. Venizelos yurtd???na ka?ar. Vaktiyle Konstantin'in devrilmesine yard?m etmi? olan Frans?z hükümeti, Konstantin'e ve muhalefete oy veren Yunan halk?na k?zar ve yeni iktidara kar?? tav?r al?r.
?ngilizler de tedirgin olurlar ama tav?r almak i?in beklemeyi tercih ederler.
Venizelos'un sürgüne yollad???, hapse att?rd??? siviller ve askerler, t?pk? Hürriyet ve ?tilaf Partililer gibi, iktidar ?zlemi ve kinle tutu?mu? bir halde yeniden sahnede boy g?sterirler. Kralc? General Papulas, Anadolu'daki Yunan ordusunun komutanl??a atan?r. ?ktidar, Anadolu'yu bo?altt??? takdirde, Yunanistan'?n Fransa ve ?talya'dan sonra, ?ngiltere'nin de deste?ini kaybedip yaln?z kalaca??n? anlar; azd?rd?klar? Anadolu Rumlar?n? yazg?lar?yla ba? ba?a b?rakmay? da g?ze alamaz. Sonunda Venizelos'un yay?lmac? politikas?n? ve ?ngilizlerin askeri olmay? kabul eder. Bu sebeple Anadolu olaylar?n? iyi bilen baz? Venizeloscu komutanlara dokunmaz.
("The task of forcing the nationalists to accept the Treaty of Sèvres and of course the Tripartite Agreement at gunpoint was offered to the Greek army through the British, and it accepted it. In return for this service, the Greek government hoped that, in addition to Izmir and Eastern Thrace, Istanbul would also be given to Greece.
However, an unexpected event will confuse Greece. King Alexander dies. Venizelos decides to renew the elections in order to prevent Constantine's return to the throne and enters the elections with the slogan "Constantine or me!". The people elect Constantine and the party that supports him. Venizelos flees abroad. The French government, which had once helped overthrow Constantine, is angry with Constantine and the Greek people who voted for the opposition, and takes a stand against the new government.
The British were also uneasy, but preferred to wait to take a stand.
The civilians and soldiers exiled and imprisoned by Venizelos reappeared on the stage, just like the members of the Freedom and Accord Party, fuelled by a longing for power and a grudge. The royalist General Papoulas was appointed commander of the Greek army in Anatolia. The government realised that if it evacuated Anatolia, Greece would lose the support of Britain, after France and Italy, and would be left alone; it could not afford to leave the Anatolian Greeks, whom they had been inflaming, alone with their fate. In the end, he accepted Venizelos' expansionist policy and to become a soldier of the British. For this reason, he did not touch some of the Venizelist commanders who knew the Anatolian events well.") - ^ Türk ?stiklal Harbi Serisi, 6th Volume, “?stiklal Harbinde Ayaklanmalar”, p. 126
- ^ Kenan ESENG?N; “Mill? Mücadelede Ayaklanmalar, pp. 175–189,Kum Saati Yay?nlar?, 2006
- ^ M. ?evki YAZMAN, "Anadolu'nun ??gali", pp. 83–84, Kum Saati Yay?nlar?, 2006, Istanbul
- ^ A. Nedim ?AKMAK; “??gal Günlerinde ??birlik?iler Hüsnüyadis Hortlad?”, pp. 54–55, Kum Saati Yay?nlar?, 2006, ?stanbul.
- ^ According to John R. Ferris, "Kemenangan muktamad Turki di Anatolia ... produced Britain's gravest strategic crisis between the 1918 Armistice and Munich, plus a seismic shift in British politics ..." Erik Goldstein and Brian McKerche, Power and Stability: British Foreign Policy, 1865–1965, 2004 p. 139
- ^ A. Strahan claimed that: "The internationalisation of Constantinople and the Straits under the aegis of the League of Nations, feasible in 1919, was out of the question after the complete and decisive Turkish victory over the Greeks". A. Strahan, Contemporary Review, 1922.
- ^ N. B. Criss, Istanbul Under Allied Occupation, 1918–1923, 1999, p. 143. "But now in 1922, after the decisive Turkish victory over the Greeks, 40,000 Turkish soldiers moved towards ?annakale."
- ^ Ia terdiri (setakat 1922) sekitar 2,500 orang sukarelawan etnik Armenia. Lihat Ramazian, Samvel (2010). Ιστορ?α των αρμενο-ελληνικ?ν στρατιωτικ?ν σχ?σεων και συνεργασ?α? / ???-???????? ???????? ??????????????? ?? ????????????????? ??????????? [History of Armenian-Greek military relations and cooperation] (dalam bahasa Greek dan Armenia). Athens: Stamoulis Publications. m/s. 200–201, 208–209. ISBN 978-9609952002. Cited in Vardanyan, Gevorg (12 November 2012). ???-???????? ????????????????? ??????? ????? ?????????????? ????????? (1915–1923 ??.) [The attempts of the Greek-Armenian Co-operation during the Armenian Genocide (1915–1923)]. akunq.net (dalam bahasa Armenia). Research Center on Western Armenian Studies. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 25 Ogos 2020. Dicapai pada 25 Ogos 2020.
- ^ Ergün Aybars, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti tarihi I, Ege üniversitesi Bas?mevi, 1984, pp. 319–334 (dalam bahasa Turki)
- ^ Turkish General Staff, Türk ?stiklal Harbinde Bat? Cephesi, Edition II, Part 2, Ankara 1999, p. 225
- ^ a b c d e G?rgülü, ?smet (1992), Büyük Taarruz: 70 nci y?l arma?an? (dalam bahasa Turki), Genelkurmay bas?mevi, m/s. 1, 4, 10, 360.
- ^ a b Erikan, Celal (1917). 100 [i.e. Yüz] soruda Kurtulu? Sava??m?z?n tarihi. Ger?ek Yay?nevi.
- ^ a b Tu?lac?, Pars (1987), ?a?da? Türkiye (dalam bahasa Turki), Cem Yay?nevi, m/s. 169.
- ^ Eleftheria, Daleziou (2002). "Britain and the Greek-Turkish War and Settlement of 1919–1923: the Pursuit of Security by "Proxy" in Western Asia Minor". University of Glasgow. m/s. 108. Dicapai pada 11 Julai 2014.
- ^ Türk ?stiklal Harbinde Bat? Cephesi [The Western Front in the Turkish War of Independence] (dalam bahasa Turki), 2 (ed. II), Ankara: Turkish General Staff, 1999, m/s. 225.
- ^ Asian Review. East & West. 1934.
- ^ Sandler, Stanley (2002). Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-344-5.
- ^ History of the Campaign of Minor Asia, General Staff of Army, Athens: Directorate of Army History, 1967, m/s. 140,
on June 11 (OC) 6,159 officers, 193,994 soldiers (=200,153 men)
. - ^ Eleftheria, Daleziou (2002). "Britain and the Greek-Turkish War and Settlement of 1919–1923: the Pursuit of Security by "Proxy" in Western Asia Minor". University of Glasgow. m/s. 243. Dicapai pada 11 Julai 2014.
- ^ Giritli, ?smet (November 1986), Samsun'da Ba?layan ve ?zmir'de Biten Yolculuk (1919–1922) (ed. III), Atatürk Ara?t?rma Merkezi [Atatürk Research Center], diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 5 April 2013
- ^ a b c Sabahattin Selek: Mill? mücadele – Cilt I (engl.: National Struggle – Edition I), Bur?ak yay?nevi, 1963, p. 109 (dalam bahasa Turki)
- ^ Ta?k?ran, Cemalettin (2005). "Kanl? mürekkeple yaz?n ?ektiklerimizi ... !": Milli Mücadelede Türk ve Yunan esirleri, 1919–1923. Platin Yay?nlar?. m/s. 26. ISBN 978-975-8163-67-0.
- ^ Επ?τομο? Ιστορ?α Εκστρατε?α? Μικρ?? Ασ?α? 1919–1922 [Abridged History of the Campaign of Minor Asia] (dalam bahasa Greek), Athens: Directorate of Army History, 1967, Table 2.
- ^ a b Στρατιωτικ? Ιστορ?α journal, Issue 203, December 2013, p. 67
- ^
- ?zdalga, Elizabeth. The last dragoman: the Swedish orientalist Johannes Kolmodin as scholar, activist and diplomat (2006), Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, p. 63.
- Toynbee, Arnold. "Toynbee, Arnold (6 April 1922) [9 March 1922], "Letter", The Times, Turkey".
- Loder Park, U.S. Vice-Consul James. "Smyrna, 11 April 1923. US archives US767.68116/34".
- HG, Howell. "Report on the Nationalist Offensive in Anatolia, Istanbul: The Inter-Allied commission proceeding to Bourssa, F.O. 371-7898, no. E10383.(15 September 1922)
- ^ Ahmet ?zdemir, Sava? esirlerinin Milli mücadeledeki yeri, Ankara University, Türk ?nk?lap Tarihi Enstitüsü Atatürk Yolu Dergisi, 2nd ed., Number 6, 1990, pp. 328–332
- ^ Kate Fleet; I. Metin Kunt; Re?at Kasaba; Suraiya Faroqhi (2008). The Cambridge History of Turkey. m/s. 226.
Bibliografi
[sunting | sunting sumber]- Ak?am, Taner (2006). A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New York: Metropolitan Books.
- Horton, George (1926), The Blight of Asia, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill
- Kinross, Lord (1960). Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-82036-9.
- Dobkin, Marjorie (1998). Smyrna 1922: The Destruction of a City. New Mark Press. ISBN 978-0-9667451-0-8.
- Clark, Bruce (2006). Twice A Stranger: How Mass Expulsion Forged Modern Greece and Turkey. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03222-4.
- Fisher, Sydney Nettleton (1969), The Middle East: a History, New York: Alfred A Knopf
- Fromkin, David (1990). A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East. New York: Avon Books
- Friedman, Isaiah (2012), British Miscalculations: The Rise of Muslim Nationalism, 1918–1925, Transaction Publishers, ISBN 978-1-4128-4710-0.
- Kitsikis, Dimitri (1963), Propagande et pressions en politique internationale. La Grèce et ses revendications à la Conférence de la Paix, 1919–1920 [Propaganda and pressions in international politics. Greece and its reivindications at the Peace conference, 1919–20] (dalam bahasa Perancis), Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
- Kitsikis, Dimitri (1972), Le r?le des experts à la Conférence de la Paix de 1919 [The role of experts at the Peace conference of 1919] (dalam bahasa Perancis), Ottawa: Editions de l'Université d'Ottawa (Commission interalliée d'enquête sur l'occupation grecque de Smyrne).
- Lowe, Cedric James; Dockrill, Michael L (2002), The Mirage of Power, Two: British Foreign Policy 1914–22, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26597-3.
- Milton, Giles (2008). Paradise Lost: Smyrna 1922: The Destruction of Islam's City of Tolerance (ed. paperback). London: Sceptre; Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-96234-3. Dicapai pada 28 Julai 2010.
- Morgenthau, Henry sr (1918), Ambassador Morgenthau's Story (PDF), Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co, diarkibkan daripada yang asal (PDF) pada 24 Januari 2013, dicapai pada 13 September 2006.
- Naimark, Norman M (2002), Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe, Harvard University Press.
- Papatheu, Katerina (2007). Greci e turchi. Appunti fra letteratura, musica e storia [Greeks & Turks. Appointments on literature, music & history] (dalam bahasa Itali). Roma-Catania: Bonanno.
- Templat:SLS Q
- Shaw, Stanford Jay; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1977). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge University Press.
- Smith, Michael Llewellyn (1999) [London: Allen Lane, 1973], Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919–1922, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, ISBN 978-0-472-08569-9.
- Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1922). The Western question in Greece and Turkey: a study in the contact of civilisations. Constable. OCLC 718448089.
- Richard G. Hovannisian (2007). The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies. Transaction Pub. ISBN 978-1-4128-0619-0.
- Rendel, GW (20 Mac 1922), Memorandum by Mr. Rendel on Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice (memorandum), British Foreign Office, diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 16 April 2022, dicapai pada 5 Ogos 2022.
- Midlarsky, Manus I. (2005). The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81545-1.
Pautan luar
[sunting | sunting sumber] |
Wikimedia Commons mempunyai media berkaitan Perang Greece-Turki (1919–1922) |
- Europe during the Greco-Turkish War (map), Omniatlas, diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 16 Mac 2015, dicapai pada 15 Februari 2012.
Templat:Turkish War of Independence Templat:Middle East conflicts
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